Electricity and Economy in Kenya Essay

ICT has been the main driver of Kenya’s economic growth over the last decade, growing on average by 20 % annually, and propelling the combined transport and communications sector into the economy’s second largest after agriculture. In chapter three I have discussed the impact of electricity on key economic sectors in Kenya which are agriculture, educational services, banking and communication services, microenterprises and tourism all of which are key pillars of Kenya Vision 2030. It costs approximately Ksh. 5,000 to connect to the grid and about 15 US cents equivalent per kWh of electricity service. This high cost is a major obstacle to the expansion of electricity connection to low-income households. Chapter 1: Introduction 1. 1 Overview and statement of the problem Broad agreement exists that the level and the intensity of energy use in a country is a key indicator of economic growth and development. A number of researchers claim that for modern energy to make a diff erence on poverty, it must necessarily contribute to productive uses that generate income and create jobs. Kenya’s Vision 2030 identified energy as one of the infrastructure enablers of its pillars and it is expected that more energy will be required to realize the objectives of the Vision. The economic pillar of Vision 2030 aims at providing prosperity for all Kenyans through an economic development programme aimed at achieving an average GDP growth rate of 10% per annum over the next 25 years. Electricity remains the most sought after energy source by the Kenyan society and access to it is normally associated with rising or high quality of life. Its current consumption is at 143 kilowatt hours (kWh) per capita and national connectivity rate of about 28. 9% which is below the average of 32% for developing countries. Electrification plays an important role in the start-up and growth of microenterprises which may lead to sustainable livelihoods and poverty reduction. Energy can be directly linked to improved food security because energy can be used in any part of the food supply chain, from growing, processing, storage and cooking, through to marketing and distribution.

Eyewitness Testimony Essay

The criminal justice systems in Australia and throughout the world rely on evidence to prosecute persons suspected of a crime. Previously, criminal investigators relied upon eyewitness accounts for their investigations though psychological research shows that eyewitness testimony is not always accurate and should not be used in the criminal justice system as a sole piece of evidence (Sangero & Halpert, 2007). Numerous research papers and articles have cautioned the use of eyewitness testimony due to many cases solely basing their verdict from this evidence. In light of DNA evidence, many convicted of a criminal offence have been exonerated of their sentences. The use of identification tests found in numerous papers clarifies why witness testimony can be inaccurate and unreliable. Experiments made throughout the years testing eyewitness accounts delve into factors associating event characteristics, eyewitness characteristics and target characteristics and how they contribute to the re trieval of information from an eyewitness. These factors clarify as to why witness testimony should not be used solely as evidence in the criminal justice system but rather another constituent in identifying the person of interest in a criminal investigation. In 1992 a non for profit organisation was formed to help those convicted and sentenced to a crime they did not commit. The Innocence Project was formed by Barry C. Scheck and Peter J. Neufeld in affiliation with Cardozo school of law at Yeshiva University to help exonerate those found guilty via DNA testing (Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University, 1997). According to The Innocence Project, 75% of eyewitness testimony which were used to convict suspected criminals in the United States of America was erroneous in light of DNA testing. In one such case in New Zealand, a man named David Dougherty was found guilty of rape and abduction of a little girl who pleaded against him in the court of law as being the man that raped her (Cleave & Gower, 2012). Mr Dougherty was acquitted of the 1992 rape in 1997 due to the fact that experts finally concluded that there was insufficient DNA evidence to prove beyond a doubt  that he was the perpetrator (Fairfax NZ News, 2009). Although DNA evidence exonerated Mr Dougherty of the crime, many believed he was the perpetrator due to the eyewitness testimony, and expert opinions were clouded due to the publicity of this case. It was only until an overseas expert testified in favour of Mr Dougherty that he was acquitted (Fairfax NZ News, 2009). This case shows the errors made by the victim/eyewitness and how certain she was of the suspect and The Innocence Project has proven that eyewitness testimony is often mistaken. It has been widely documented throughout the decades that mistaken identifications were involved in the majority of cases examined by psychological researchers (Penrod, 2005). Research has suggested that during a police investigation, eyewitnesses would sometimes be subject to view more than one line-up to help identify a suspect (Palmer, Brewer, & Weber, 2010). Early research has cited that more viewings of potential suspects should theoretically improve the accuracy of the eyewitness choosing the offender (Penrod, 2005). Most recent research has found that multiple line-ups can impair subsequent identification accuracy therefore concluding that the more line-ups an eyewitness goes through, the more room for error in choosing the subject in question (Palmer, Brewer, & Weber, 2010). This study focused on post-identification feedback and separated their study into two main areas: confirming feedback and disconfirming feedback to see whether these would affect how the eyewitness will proceed with subsequent line-ups. According to Palmer, Brewer and Weber, Only witnesses who received feedback after an initial correct rejection performed at a level comparable with a single-lineup control group, suggesting that an initial identification test can impair, but not enhance, performance on a second test involving the same culprit (Palmer, Brewer, & Weber, 2010). It is suggested within this research that criminal investigations avoid using multiple line-ups to ensure that more innocent persons of interest are not convicted due to erroneous eyewitness accuracy. In Addition to this research it has also been found that eyewitness errors increase when persons of interest are chosen out of a photo display rather than an actual lineup  (Lindsay & Wells, Improving Eyewitness Identifications From Lineups: Simultaneous Versus Sequential Lineup Presentation, 1985). These errors are believed to have something to do with the person administrating the lineups or photo arrays (Wells, Rydell, & Seelau, 1993) therefore manipulating the eyewitness’ choices in identifying a suspect within a lineup and subsequent lineups (Phillips, McAuliff, Kovera, & Cutler, 1999) as previously found. This error is resolved easily by appointing someone to administer lineups or photo arrays that do not know who the suspect may be (Wells & Bradfeild, 1998). Furthermore, research has found that the longer the time interval between the event and eyewitness account, the likely it is that the eyewitness account will be erroneous (Loftus, Miller, & Burns, 1978). Another factor relating to event characteristics is that of distance. Many studies have shown that distance between the eyewitness and the target (suspect) will have an impact on memory recollection and facial recognition (Lindsay, Semmler, Weber, Brewer, & Lindsay, 2008). In one such experiment, it was concluded that eyewitness recognition deteriorated as the distance between them and the target increased (Wagenaar & van der Schrier, 1996). In most eyewitness testimony, it is up to the eyewitness to recall the distance between them and the target. Previously, the courts relied upon the 15 metre rule: the optimal viewing distance for an eyewitness (Wagenaar & van der Schrier, 1996). Lindsay et al. (2008) suggested to the courts that rather than relying on the 15 metre rule, in general, identifications will decrease with an increase in distance hence it is up to the courts to decide whether the eyewitness accounts are credible or not. Eyewitness characteristics also factor in to the discussion of how reliable eyewitness testimony is in the criminal justice system. According to a research study by Wells & Olsen (2003), gender has very little to do with how well females perform to males in terms of eyewitness identification, although both genders differ in how they view the event/scene. The age of a witness has a major impact on eyewitness identification as children and the elderly were found to perform poorly in relation to young adults when experiments were conducted (Wells & Olson, 2003). Another factor included into the eyewitness characteristics is that of race. It has been thoroughly investigated and concluded that people are better at identifying facial feat ures of their own race than those of other races (Meissner & Brigham, 2001). This data is useful for those areas  in which are culturally the same but for multicultural locations, namely Australia; it would have little significance the testimony could not be verified unless there was other incriminating evidence against the suspect. One suppressor of facial recognition is that of a weapon. A weapon is believed to reduce the ability of an eyewitness to correctly identify a suspect due to the attention been drawn from the perpetrators face towards the weapon/object (Steblay, 1992). In the court of law, this aspect of whether the eyewitness paid much attention to facial features to be able to correctly identify a suspect becomes somewhat of an issue. Eyewitness testimony is â€Å"self-report† and cannot be checked or cross referenced with other facts as it is purely psychological and based on how well the eyewitness believes they have retained sufficient facial recognition (Wells & Quinlivan, 2009). The confidence and certainty of an eyewitness has been frequently admissible in the criminal courts and the criminal justice system has previously relied upon the eyewitness assessing his/her own psychological capabilities. This has been thoroughly researches as being certainty verse accuracy (Wells & Quinlivan, 2009). In the majority of the research conducted testing this, it has been found that the eyewitness certainty has a moderate relationship with accuracy (Penrod, 2005) therefore the criminal justice system cannot prove whether the eyewitness testimony is mistaken or correct. Finally there is the factor of target characteristics. As previously stated, facial recognition is more accurate when of the same race. Another factor though is that of distinctiveness and whether the target (suspect) has a recognizable face. It has been research that very attractive or very unattractive targets are easier to recognize than average looking faces (Wells & Olson, 2003). Changes in facial characteristics also play a role in whether an eyewitness can recall what they saw. Changes in the face that are of natural occurrence, such as hairstyle, and disguises can dramatically affect recognition(Wells & Olson, 2003). In terms of whether these types of eyewitness accounts are to be used in the criminal justice system is simple as a suspect should not be convicted solely on eyewitness testimony but be used as a resource with other evidence which may incriminate the person of interest (Sangero & Halpert, 2007). Psychological research shows that eyewitness testimony is not always accurate; therefore it should not be used in the criminal justice  system solely as a piece of evidence. To be able to convict and sentence a suspect, in the interest of the courts other evidence must substantiate such claims of guilt. Factors such as event characteristics, eyewitness characteristics and target characteristics explained in this paper show that eyewitness testimony cannot be used as reliable evidence. The studies in this paper clearly show that if there is a reasonable doubt in eyewitness testimony then it should not be used as a basis to convict a person of a crime but rather used as a constituent for furt her investigations of a suspect. List of References Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University. (1997). The Innocence Project. Retrieved July 14, 2012, from http://www.innocenceproject.org/about/ Cleave, L., & Gower, P. (2012). 10 Years of Guilt over for rape victim. (N. Herald, Editor) Retrieved July 14, 2012, from http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=3504996 Fairfax NZ News. (2009, March 07). Falsely imprisoned: David Dougherty’s story. Retrieved July 14, 2012, from http://www.stuff.co.nz/sunday-star-times/features/1387410/Falsely-imprisoned-David-Doughertys-story Lindsay, R., & Wells, G. L. (1985). Improving Eyewitness Identifications From Lineups: Simultaneous Versus Sequential Lineup Presentation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(3), 556-564. Lindsay, R., Semmler, C., Weber, N., Brewer, N., & Lindsay, M. R. (2008). How Variations in Distance Affect Eyewitness Reports and Identification Accuracy. Law and Human Behaviour, 32, 526-535. Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. C., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic Integration of Verbal Information Into Visual Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 19-31. Meissner, C., & Brigham, J. C. (2001). Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 7(1), 3-35. Palmer, M. A., Brewer, N., & Weber, N. (2010). Postidentification Feedback Affects Subsequent Eyewitness Identification Performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 16(4), 387-398. Penrod, S. (2005). Eyewitness. In L. E. Sullivan, M. R.

Beethoven Research Paper Essay

While many men and women throughout history have made significant, valuable and lasting contributions to society, Ludwig Van Beethoven is an especially remarkable figure worthy of special note because he embraced and devoted his whole life to music. Born to a drunkard father and an unhappy mother, the young Beethoven was exposed to a brutal training in music at the hands of his father, who hoped that the young boy would prove to be another prodigy like Mozart. Ludwig Van Beethoven’s music set the 18th century Traditions and were shaped and molded because of the great composers Mozart and Haydn, who taught and raised him up in his musical capabilities (Ludwig Beethoven). Beethoven’s success was measured by his devotion, Beethoven dropped out of grade school by the age of ten to study music full time with Christian Gottlob Neefe. March 26, 1778 Beethoven performed his first piano recital at the age of seven; at the twelve years of age Beethoven published his first composition made up of Piano Variations (Ludwig Beethoven). Throughout the years Beethoven began to experiment with different styles and genres of music, the styles changes can be heard in his symphonies, String quartets, and Piano Sonatas. At a young age Beethoven requested to be an assistant court organist, because of his young age Court officials were hesitant but accepted him (Ludwig Van Beethoven). Through his young years of his life, it is clearly evident to how devoted and passionate he was when it came to music. Through the musical years and compositions of Ludwig Van Beethoven, Beethoven gave opening to his own dramatic musical voice. Through Beethoven’s adulthood he faced many trials and tribulations. But Beethoven always used his problems as a stepping stool to become stronger and better at whatever he did, and at the same time he was composing his great and memorable works, Beethoven was struggling with the fact that he was going deaf (Ludwig Van Beethoven). In 1801 Beethoven confessed this horrible news to Franz Wegeler, a German physician from Bonn, German; the same place Beethoven was born. He wrote, â€Å"I must confess that I lead a miserable life for almost two years. I have ceased to attend any social functions, just because I find it impossible to say to people: I am deaf. If I had any other profession, I might be able to cope with my infirmity; but in my profession it is a terrible handicap† (Ludwig Van Beethoven). Miraculously, despite his increasing deafness, Beethoven continued to compose. From 1803-1812, these years are what is known as his â€Å"heroic† period (Ludwig Van Beethoven). He created so much music, proving people nothing could stop him. He composed an opera, 6 symphonies, 4 solo concerti, 5 string quartets, 6 string sonatas, 7 piano sonatas, 5 sets of piano variations, 4 overtures, 4 trios, 7 sextets, and 72 songs (Beethoven, Ludwig van). Despite his amazing output of beautiful music, Beethoven was lonely and always miserable throughout his adulthood. Beethoven never married or had children (Beethoven, Ludwig van) and somehow, despite his wild personal life, physical disability, and complete deafness, Beethoven composed his greatest music. String quartet NO. 14 contains 7 linked movements without a break (Ludwig Beethoven). Beethoven’s adulthood was a crazy rollercoaster but in everything he did, he was always dedicated and did everything whole-heartedly. A quote by Liszt, the Arch Romantic, perfectly sums the impact and importance of Ludwig Van Beethoven to not only the music community but also to the history of music itself. â€Å"To us musicians the work of Beethoven parallels the pillars of smoke and fire which led the Israelites throughout the desert, a pillar of smoke to lead us by day, and a pillar of fire to light the night. His darkness and his light equally trace for us the road we must follow, both the one and other are a perpetual commandment and an intolerable revolution.† Works Cited: â€Å"Beethoven, Ludwig van.† Pbs. Feb 17 2013, 8:00 http://www.pbs.org/wnet/gperf/education/beethoven.html â€Å"Ludwig Beethoven.† 2013. The Biography Channel website. Feb 15 2013, 12:05 http://www.biography.com/people/ludwig-van-beethoven-9204862. â€Å"Ludwig Van Beethoven.† Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Gale Biography In Context. Web. 15 Feb. 2013. [pic]

The National Institutes of Health and The Centers for Disease Control Research Paper

The National Institutes of Health and The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - Research Paper Example The efficient work of the organization can be exhibited by the implementation of laws by the nations regarding driving safety such as seat belt laws, child safety seat legislation and licensing laws. This was only because of the active collection of data by the CDC about the motor vehicle crashes in United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). CDC also helps the healthcare facilities and the government to tackle the leading causes of death in the United States and also the causes of disability. It promotes safe and healthy behaviors among the communities and also introduces disease detectives and public health workforce to combat the emerging diseases. National Institute of Health is a government organization that works toward achieving new and up-to-date knowledge of living systems and the application of the new discoveries and researches for the enhancement of human health, reducing illness and improving the environment. NIH fosters basic researches and helps in new and interesting yet applicable researches that can be used for the prevention and treatment of health-related problems. NIH also aims to improve the country’s economy by improving the health and the associated sciences. This is only possible with the successful outcomes achieved by the investments in public research (National Institutes of Health, 2013).

Kentuckys Educational System; Argument by Definition, Evaluation, and Essay

Kentuckys Educational System; Argument by Definition, Evaluation, and Proposal - Essay Example This essay declares that education in Kentucky encompasses elementary school such as kindergarten to fifth grade, middle school also called junior high that starts from sixth grade to eighth grade, and high school starting from ninth to twelfth grade. The system also includes post secondary institutions. Many Kentucky colleges and schools have an accreditation of various Associations of Colleges and Schools in the region. However, Kentucky education suffers from a common negative stigma like other Southern states. This paper makes a conclusion that the system emphasizes on various levels where capacity building takes place. The initial focus is that of having individual officers, precisely from government management and planning teams are participating in remodeling the system. Also, organizational goals revolve around improving the overall effectiveness of the methods and incentivizing better teamwork in education. The other level includes that of developing public service reforms to have a fundamental national leadership while adapting to the respective administration circumstances. Lastly, the levels of external assistance from international and bilateral agencies need to have a long-term consideration leading into a critical transfer for skills, precisely within the fragile state of Kentucky. The development strategy can be prepared together with international education organizations focusing on the development of capacity across areas of quality and equity, leadership, organization, insti tutions, and knowledge generation.

Analyse the role of peer and self-assessment in the assessment process Essay

Analyse the role of peer and self-assessment in the assessment process - Essay Example In case of weakness, they learn from their mistakes and study how to tame or counter them. This learning method helps to remove the notion that learning is just a passive process where students listen to someone and get what he says. Here one listens to themselves and their peers. This process makes students more involved in the learning process. The more involved they are, the more effective the learning process is. David klob defines self-assessment learning as a process a spiral learning way, which takes into consideration all the fundamentals of learning. These are thinking, reflecting, experiencing, and acting. This makes it very effective (Lippincott, J. 1999, 67). This learning method also helps one to know the requirements that they need in order to achieve a certain goal. Having known their strengths and weakness, this is easier since they know the target they have to set for certain disciplines. They tend to know their expectations, and how to achieve them. Self-assessment can be used in two ways. It can be used in a summative or formative way. In most cases, it is used formatively. In formative ones, peer sets their standards for them; whereas, summative mostly includes the use of group work to set ones target (Catherine. 2011, 25). Lippincott, J. K., 1999. Collaboration Between Librarians And Information Technologists A Case Study Employing Kolbs Experiential Learning Theory, Thesis (Ph. D.)--University Of Maryland at College

The Disease Called Polio Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Disease Called Polio - Research Paper Example The causative agent was first identified in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner (Paul, 1971). Even though this disease had existed for several hundreds and thousands of years, it was not until 1880s that the disease became major epidemics as it began to occur in Europe and United States (Trevelyan et al., 2005). Since then the epidemic was wide spread and only in 1950s and early 1960s was the vaccine for this disease developed and it declined rapidly in the developed nations. There are still threats of polio in Asian and African countries. CAUSITIVE AGENT: POLIOVIRUS Poliovirus belongs to the group enterovirus and the family Picornaviridae. As a general understanding Enteroviruses are short-lived inhabitants in the gastrointestinal tract as they have stability in the acidic medium (Atkinson et al., 2009). The polio viruses are implanted in the pharynx and gastrointestinal tract of the infected individual. The three serotypes of the viruses are P1, P2, and P3 and there is negligible heterotypic resistance amid the three types. In other words, if a person has resistance to any one serotype, it does not mean that he/she will have signifi ­cant resistance to the other serotypes. ... But it is shown that a vast majority of people who are infected with the poliovirus do not even realize that they've been infected with polio. Researchers have found that the poliovirus attacks local lymphoid tissue, gets into the bloodstream, and later damage the cells of the central nervous system. The multiplication of poliovirus in motor neurons damages the cells particularly of the anterior horn and brain stem that results in appearances of poliomyelitis (Atkinson et al., 2009). Poliomyelitis is classified into two main types – the non-paralytic and the paralytic polio. Among some individuals the symptoms from the poliovirus doesn't lead to paralysis and these are called non-paralytic polio. The initial symptoms of the disease are as common as other viral illnesses such as mild, flu-like signs, fever, sore throat, headache, vomiting, fatigue and stiffness linked with back pain and/or neck pain, stiffness in arms and legs, muscle spasms, and meningitis. These symptoms last for about ten days followed by complete recovery. In exceptional cases, poliovirus infection results in paralytic polio which is one of the most dangerous forms of polio. Depending on the part at which the virus attacks, the paralytic polio is further sub-classified as spinal polio, bulbar polio (brain stem) and bulbospinal polio (brain stem and spinal). Early signs and symptoms of paralytic polio is often the same as the non-paralytic polio or other viral illnesses. However, within a week, signs and symptoms particular to paralytic polio appear and that includes loss of reflexes, severe muscle aches or spasms, loose and floppy limbs either on one side or on both sides and finally paralysis. Additionally, the some of these people may later suffer from post-polio syndrome. This syndrome is a

LANGUSGE AND THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE EXCERPT FORM THE ROVER Essay - 1

LANGUSGE AND THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE EXCERPT FORM THE ROVER - Essay Example Willmore and Angelica as Angelica is observed to be holding a gun against Willmore’s breast and threatening to take his life while Willmore tries to placate her and tries to save himself from Angelica’s wrath. The various themes projected in this scene include theme of appearance and reality, theme of love and theme of revenge. The theme of appearance and reality is apparent from the very first line of stage setting instructions of this scene as it states, â€Å"enter again the page conducting in Angelica in a masquing habit and a vizard†. Angelica’s garb of a young page to hide her identity not only reflects on the theme of appearance and reality but also supports theme of deception in the play. Moreover theme of love and appearance and reality are also observed to be interconnected during the course of this scene. The reason being that Angelica says at one point, â€Å"oh if I take no heed my coward heart will leave me at his mercy† this line reve als her love for Willmore yet at the same time she keeps up a strong demeanor of a woman bent on taking her revenge. Hence through her behavior the readers observe that her action of hiding her true feelings and keeping up an angry and strong upfront also illustrates the theme of appearance and reality yet at the same time reveals her vulnerability and love for Willmore.

Comprehensive Analysis Outline and Presentation Essay

Comprehensive Analysis Outline and Presentation - Essay Example It is much to the favor of Wine Selling Place to choose this particular region of the country due to the limited business restrictions here and to ensure that the organization can expand or improve distribution with limited governmental regulation and influence. There are over 60 million potential customers in Italy, a nation that is well-known for its diverse tastes and preference for wine as a household beverage. The country is currently experiencing a 1.3 percent growth rate in GDP, suggesting that this particular nation in Europe has overcome some of the economic troubles currently plaguing many European nations. Inflation is a moderate 1.6 percent, much lower than many other industrialized nations. This provides opportunities to cater the business’ wine products to those with moderate household incomes that can afford high quality or even lower cost wine without concern over lack of disposable income due to increasing economic restraints related to inflationary environments. As with most companies, the first method of procuring finance is to assess the viability of banking loans. Italy maintains many different banks that are regulated by EU finance ministers and those that have well-respected international reputations (i.e. Barclay’s, etc). Financing can be achieved through the production of a detailed, well-researched business plan and then presented to banking representatives for approval based on credit worthiness and future strategic business planning. Additional funding sources include the local Chamber of Commerce, financial institutions associated with the European Union, reimbursable grants from various agencies designed to foster growth in small businesses, and even subsidies. Seeing that Italy is highly involved with the World Trade Organization and also promotes small business growth through

Engineering Design Process Essay Example for Free

Engineering Design Process Essay An Industrial Engineer is designing a procurement process for Spinney’s Supermarket and after studying the demand for cereals, he concludes that the demand for cereals follows a normal distribution and falls between 200 to 230 boxes per week. Therefore, the demand of the cereal is a random variable because the demand can fluctuate between 200 and 230 boxes however; the demand will not decrease or increase tremendously unless some unusual event occurs. Using this estimate, the industrial engineer can decide how much cereal to procure in a certain week so that demand can be fulfilled without storing extra inventory. During his study, he also finds out that the mean demand for cereal is 217 boxes per week and the standard deviation (which is the difference of the actual demand from the projected demand) is 15 boxes per week then he can find out the percentage of actual demand that is above 230 boxes per week since this will help him to decide whether to store extra inventory or not because if the probability of demand to exceed 230 is low then he might decide not to fulfill those orders since their chance of occurrence is low and holding cost is high. To determine the percentage of times the demand exceeds 230 boxes per week, the engineer will use the formula: P (X 230) = P [X (230 – 217) / 15] P (Z 0. 8667) = 1- 0. 8078 = 19. 22% Using this figure, the procurement department has to decide whether they should keep extra inventory or should they not be worrying about the 19. 22% of times when they might be having lost sales.

Group Excluded from International Human Rights

Group Excluded from International Human Rights Human Rights Human rights, as explained by the great English philosopher and thinker John Locke, are natural and unalienable rights (life, liberty, and property) inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, sex, color, religion or language. All men are created equal, everyone is entitled to the human rights without any discrimination. Most human rights are guaranteed by the Constitution, state laws, and international treaties. International human rights law promotes and protects human rights by laying certain pressure upon governments. But even though there are many laws created to protect everyones human rights, certain people are being excluded from their rights by different levels of government, such as the poor homeless whose liberty is limited by the state government, Zapatistas whose life and property is taken by the Mexican National Government, and French Muslims whose freedom of religion is violated by the French National Government. Los Angeles is once a beautiful and luxurious heaven. But now Los Angeles state government is fighting war, a war with its own citizens living inside the state. Fortress Los Angeles: The Militarization of Urban Space (Davis, 1), this is the title Davis gave to his research paper, but it is also his feeling toward the state of Los Angeles. Everywhere in the city is the frontline of war. Stop building toilets, special designed bus benches, fancy garbage to protect fishheads and stale French fires, and outdoor sprinklers, those are all policy decision made by the government to fight the citys war on the poor homeless. They tried their best to eliminate or remove homeless from the city by violating the human rights that homeless should be entitled to. But while the government is violating the human rights, they claim that they are promoting human rights by protecting people from danger, but they exclude homeless from the definition of word people. Collective human rights, those are what government is claiming about. They always try to protect majoritys rights by excluding certain peoples human rights. Rights and Human Rights, huge differences, but government never recognizes it, they just called them human rights regardless of the differences. They make the policy that will discriminate and deny the liberty of homeless to protect majority from possible danger. The government should not define homeless as dangerous just because some homeless people are dangerous and harmful. For public-housing tenants and inhabitants of narcotic-enforcement zones, the loss of freedom is the price of security (Davis, 6) As stated by the author Mike Davis, one of the three primary human rights, liberty is taken by the government from the homeless to ensure other peoples safety from possible danger, this should not be called collective human rights, but the power of government to protect people who make profit for the government. Similarly, people, especially children, in Central and S outh America are excluded from the protection of human rights imposed by the law. Their organs will be taken without their permission and sold to other rich countries, leave them with a horrible body for the rest of their life. The organ-stealing stories were told, remembered, and circulated because they were true at that indeterminate level between the real, the surreal and the uncanny (Scheper-Hughes, 36) Even though organ stealing is so wide spread and known by everyone, Government never tried to stop it, or maybe it is even promoting it to make profit. So it is clear that poor homeless is excluded totally from the protection of government for their human rights, even if the constitution, and international laws expressly guarantee everyone will be treated equally by the government. Only liberty is taken by the state government from homeless, but in some area even life and property is taken by the national government. On New Years Day, 1994, Zapatista rebels in Chiapas, Mexico, confronted the Mexican government with demands for basic human rights (Messer, 319). That is the start of the revolution inside the border of Mexico and the reason why Zapatistas fight against the Mexican government. People in Chiapas were discriminated against, their only property, land is also taken by the government. With nothing to lose, they started revolution, and created a border within the Mexican border. In the video, a place called Chiapas, the life of Chiapas people was presented. They were poor before revolution, but with the land they own, they can still live. But the Mexican government took the land from them to develop modern cities which cause Chiapas people to be abused by riches. Again, it is the problem of collective human rights conflicting with individual human rights. This time national government claims that they are protecting the benefit and rights of people inside Chiapas while taking away everythi ng they own and force people there to become terrorists. Maybe war is not a right choice, but it is Chiapas peoples only choice. Without revolution, they are all going to die due to the poor condition there. Collective Human Rights, as claimed by the national government, is just a joke. Without individual human rights, no collective human rights can be achieved. Without those lands, all Chiapas people are going to hunger to die, then what would be the use of collective human rights toward the dead people? Life, liberty and property, only those three primary human rights being protected well, then other things can be done by the government. Similar conditions occur in the process of progress. People and place which are being progressed have lost many. People would lose the right to their every day practice because the land is taken by the government. They are forced to change their diet which causes new diseases to appear in the local places, and reduce the health condition of the lo cal people. Overall, the available data seem to indicate that the dietary changes that are linked to involvement in the world-market economy have tended to lower rather than raise the nutritional levels of the affected tribal peoples (Bodley, 3) Progress is great thing, but with great prices. Freedom of choosing food and life of local people are taken during the process of progress. So individual rights should be considered first, and then collective rights can be done. So again, even though the international treaties lay down the obligation of protecting everyones human rights upon governments, some people are excluded from them because of collective human rights. Similar problem, but different salutation has occurred in France, this time it involves freedom of religion. Muslims in the France is always treated different, not only because of their religion, but also because of their dressing. So French government created laws that banned any Muslims to wear headscarves that have religious meanings. The reasons French government gave for this law is that For many non-Muslim French, they (headscarves) represent multiple dangers to the Republic: the oppression of women, urban violence, international terrorism, and the general refusal of Muslim immigrants to integrate into the broader society (Bowen, 31). So this seems to be a problem about collective human rights and individual human rights, but is it? It is not. A republic can exist with symbols of different religion. Freedom of religion, this should be guaranteed by any kind of republic. So this time there is no collective human rights involving at all. It is purely that French government taking away rights from Muslims without any legitimate reason. Liberty, one of the three primary human rights is vi olated by the French government. Not only that, the law they make actually may create diversity inside the nation since only Muslims are treated differently by the government. So with all those violations, Muslims in French are forced to change their way of life. They stop going to Mosques and practicing their religious activities. While all those rights are being violated, French government is still claiming they are promoting rights of the citizen living inside the republic. France is now outlawing Muslims and treats Muslims not as citizens of France, but a group of people who may cause diversity and terrorism inside France. French Republic is the official name of France, but is it a true republic? Before French government stop outlawing certain group of people inside the nation, France is never a true republic. So again individual human rights should always be the primary thing any government should think about before imposing laws or making decision. But there are always some pl aces where law cannot reach, thus create exclusion or discrimination. Bill of Rights are the first ten amendments of constitution created as the supreme law of the land to protect human rights in U.S. and other countries have similar laws. Above all, international human rights law is created to ensure everyones rights in the whole world. But it only lays down the obligation upon the government, if government will not enforce it, then human rights of people will not be protected. French Muslims, Zapatistas, and urban homeless are the examples of government exclusion. So even though every government claim that everyone will be treated equally and everyones human rights will be protected by the government, some people are not under the protection of government and suffering. Work Cited Bodley, John. The Price of Progress. Victims of Progress 1998, 137-151 Bowen, John. Muslims and Citizens. Boston Review Feb/Mar. 2004: 31-35. Davis, Mike. Fortress Los Angeles: The Militarization of Urban Space. City of Quartz, Fortress LA Messer, Ellen. Anthropologists in a World with and without Human Rights. Exotic No More: Anthropology on the Front Lines. Ed. Jeremy MacClancy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2002. 319-337 Scheper-Hughes. Nancy. Min(d)ing the Body: On the Trail of Organ-Stealing Rumors. Exotic No More: Anthropology on the Front Lines. Ed. Jeremy MacClancy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2002. 33-63 A Place Called Chiapas. 2006. online video clip. Google Video. Accessed on 05 December, 2009.

The Liquid Ring Pump

The Liquid Ring Pump The performance of a two-stage liquid ring pump with water as the sealant liquid was investigated under stand-alone conditions. The parameters varied in this experiment were the cooling water flowrate and inlet air volumetric flowrate which affects the sealant water temperature and pumping speed respectively. Pressure and temperature readings were taken to calculate the compression work and efficiency across the liquid ring pump. It was found that efficiency improved at higher cooling water flowrates and lower sealant water flowrates. As the inlet air mass flowrate was increased, it was also observed that the suction pressure, pumping speed, and compression work increased. These trends compare well to similar investigations done in literature. Assumptions made to describe the performance of the LRP were isothermal compression, ideal gas, dry air as inlet gas, and no loss of energy to the surroundings. Energy balance done across the liquid ring pump showed an agreement to literature ( 1) that isothermal compression was found to be more thermodynamically efficient compared to an adiabatic process. Further work can be done by investigating he pumps performance using different sealant liquids, inlet gas moisture content, and in conjunction with reflux/reboiler and reflux/condenser. Problem Statement Morton Labs Inc. has commissioned an independent evaluation of their liquid ring pump rig. They would like a report on the performance of the pump under a wide set of conditions and its suitability to operate with the Reboiler/Condenser and Reflux/Condenser rigs in their plant. Group A3 was required to plan and carry out experiments that can provide data for such evaluation. The evaluation should include mass and energy balance calculations, performance data and an analysis and description of the behaviour of the pump as well as any suitable model. You will have access to their facility and will be shown how to operate the equipment. Introduction The concept of vacuum has long been the subject of interest of philosophers since the times of the Ancient Greeks due to its profound uniqueness and was recreated by physical means with the creation of what can now be described as the first vacuum pump by Otto von Guericke in 1650. (2) Vacuum pumps have been steadily improved and advanced since then but it was not until huge advances in the late 19th and early 20th century paved the path to what would become a vital organ in several industries such as chemical, pharmaceutical and food industries. (2) In a typical paper mill for example, vacuum is mainly used to assist the removal of water in wire drainage and pressing sections in addition to several other purposes. (3) For such an industry, liquid ring vacuum pumps are utilized in order to create the vacuum needed for the mentioned processes. (4) In order to produce vacuums in the most efficient manner, the behaviour and performance of liquid ring pumps needs to be studied in order to reduce costs of operation and reduce energy consumption. Several investigations such as those by Powle and Kar (4) and Chilvers and Love (5) on measuring the behaviour of liquid ring pumps have been conducted due to the importance of determining performance. The objective of this set of experiments is to determine the performance of the 2 phase Hicks Hargreaves SLR type liquid ring pump the located on the B-floor of the Morton Laboratory. Performance can be described by varying flow conditions of the sealant water and cooling water supplied to the liquid ring pump and taking pressure and temperature measurements accordingly. This report will start by describing the operation of liquid ring pumps and the technical theory used to describe their performance, followed by the experimental plan and the methodology. The data collected will then be analysed in order to create trends describing the compression work and the isothermal efficiency of the pump in question. The report will be concluded by suggesting possible areas to be further studied in addition to answering the objective of the experiment. Background Liquid Ring Pump (LRP) The liquid ring pump operates as a vacuum pump using liquid as a compressing agent. It consists of a metal cylindrical body containing an impeller and blades set off centre with respect to the central line of the pump. The liquid ring pump must then be partially filled with a liquid which will act as the sealant and results in forming a vacuum. This is illustrated in figure 1A. The sealant liquid can be either water, oil or a solvent, depending on the application of the pump. When the impeller starts to rotate it throws the liquid in the pump against the walls by centrifugal force. This will cause the impeller blades closest to the wall to be completely submerged in the liquid sealant and the impeller blades furthest away from the wall create a void space with the liquid ring. This is because the impeller is set off centre. This void space sealed off by the liquid and the impeller can be seen by looking at figure 1B. As the impeller rotates anti-clockwise from the top to the bottom, the area of void between the impeller and liquid sealant expands. This creates a suction force which draws gaseous fluid into the pump inlet, as the impeller carries on rotating anti-clockwise from the bottom to the top the liquid is forced closer to the impeller compressing the void space and creating a compression force which pushes the gaseous fluid out of the pump outlet along with a little bit of the liquid sealant, this is because the liquid is highly turbulent inside the pump. (6) A two stage liquid ring pump is the same as described above but with two cycles in series; so that the outlet from the first stage is the inlet of the second stage. Typical values of the vacuum pressure in a two stage pump decreases to 25 mmHg from 35mmHg in a single stage pump. This shows it is much more efficient at creating the desired low vacuum which ranges from 22.5mmHg to 750mmHg. (B) (A)Figure 1: Illustration of liquid ring pump operation (7) Liquid ring pumps are commonly used on reflux / condenser and reboiler / condenser systems. One such system is the removal of air from steam surface condensers and other industrial processes. The liquid ring pump would be employed to evacuate air and any non-condensable gases from a condenser; the gas removal is done to eliminate the insulating effect of the gases present which affects the heat transfer between the steam and cooling medium. This greatly improves the efficiency of the heat transfer system and results in a smaller condenser surface area required, therefore saving space and costs of running a larger condenser. Typically for running such systems a two-stage liquid ring pump would be favoured to create a hogging operation. The first stage of the pump is used to evacuate the air from the condenser at very high pressures and then the second stage is used to optimize the efficiency of the pump and reduce the amount of peak power required. (8) Vacuum pumps are important units in plants that are involved in many applications like processing food, plastic processes, medical process that requires, etc. There are three types of vacuum pumps which can be concluded as molecular pumps which use very high speed jet of fluid, positive displacement pumps that enlarge the cavity and seal it off in frequent and entrapment pumps that traps fluid in solids. A liquid ring pump falls under the displacement pumps category, however there difference that distinguishes it from other displacement pumps. This is due to a liquid ring being formed, it creates a high convective heat and mass transfer phenomenon which dissipates the thermal effect of compression and achieves near isothermal behaviour. The effect of instantaneous convective heat and mass transfer is so rapid that the gas outlet temperature is noted to be close to the sealant inlet temperature almost instantaneously. Because of this effect the discharge temperature remains roughly co nstant, and since the volumetric flowrate also remains nearly constant then with high suction pressure the mass discharge can be enhanced. This causes the liquid ring pump to have faster evacuation during start up and faster turnaround during cycling. (1) Liquid ring pumps can use a variety of liquids, water is the most common, and the choice is generally related to the pressure you wish to be operating at. Oil is also commonly used as a liquid sealant, since oil has a very low vapour pressure; it is typically used in air-cooled systems. The liquid ring pump is also ideally suited for solvent recovery such as toluene provided the cooling water keeps the vapour pressure of the sealant down to produce the required vacuum. Ionic fluids also can be used to reduce the pressure from about 70mbar to below 1mbar. (9) Cavitation is considered a major issue that is associated with liquid ring pumps due to the fluid environment creating low pressures. At very low pressure, 35 mmHg, water boils at 31.7 CËÅ ¡. Therefore, it is essential to keep the sealant at low temperatures by supplying a cooling water flowrate to the system. Inertial cavitation is caused when the pressure falls below the vapour pressure and cause bubbles to form. These bubbles then start to collapse due to the high pressure of the surrounding medium as the pump starts to compress. As the bubble is collapsing the pressure and temperature inside rapidly start to increase, the bubble will eventually collapse, and this releases the gas into the surrounding liquid with a violent mechanism where the energy is released in a shock-wave. This can cause a series of craters and holes along the impeller this can reduce efficiency of the pump and can be seen in figure [2]. Figure [2]: Cavitation We can see the region of cavitation caused by the outlet water temperature, absolute suction pressure and air flowrate illustrated in figure [3] below. Figure [3] Figure [3] shows how a pump can operate within a safe region and then be carried into the cavitation region with only an increase in temperature. The graph also shows how the liquid in the pump vaporizes under certain conditions. For our experiment it makes sense to control the safe operation of the pump by supplying a cooling water stream. This will keep the temperature down and out of the cavitation region. It is also easier to control as the air flowrate depends on the rig that the liquid ring pump may be connected up to. And the suction pressure will have local variation within the pump. (10) Orifice meter for determining air flowrates The flowmeter used by the DeltaV software in the control room, was used to provide data on inlet air flowrates into the liquid ring pump and was unfortunately faulty. This meant the real time recordings of air flowrates could not be supplied. Thus, calibration of the orifice meter was necessary to determine the inlet air flowrates. Figure ?: Orifice meterA square-edged orifice with radius taps was used to calibrate the inlet air flowrate into the Liquid ring pump. Pressure tappings attached to mercury manometers were located one pipe diameter upstream and one-half pipe diameter downstream from the orifice plate as shown in Figure ?. Bernoullis equation for incompressible, inviscid flow along a streamline (11) without shaft work: Where is the inlet pressure (upstream pressure in this case), Pa is the outlet pressure (downstream pressure in this case), Pa are the inlet and outlet velocity respectively, m s-1 is the density of the fluid, kg m-3 is the gravity acceleration, m s-2 , are the inlet and outlet elevation respectively, m The continuity equation gives (11) Where and are the inlet and outlet cross-sectional area respectively, m2 The volumetric air flowrate across the orifice plate can be expressed by substituting Eq. (2.2.2) into Eq. (2.2.1) to give Where is the volumetric air flowrate across the orifice plate, m3 s-1 is the coefficient of discharge is the orifice cross-sectional area, m2 is the pipe cross-sectional area, m2 A typical equation relating the discharge coefficient, as a function of ÃŽÂ ² and Reynolds number, Re, was adapted to calibrate the orifice meter With the conditions of and Where is the viscosity of the fluid, Pa.s To calibrate the air flowrate across the orifice plate, the cooling water flowrate was kept constant and the pressure drop across the manometers were taken for 10-70 number of turns on Valve 11.6 for varying cooling water flowrates. From typical values of 0.61-0.65 (12), was used as the initial guess for iterations to take place. After three iterations, the values of between the corresponding iterations differ within an order of 10-6 and at the third iteration were used for calculations in this report. Where did the valve come from? Relate to diagram? 2,5,8,11 what? Figure 2: Calibration of inlet air mass flowrates across orifice plate give similar trend and magnitude for varying cooling water flowrates Figure 2 indicates that the varying cooling water flowrates do not affect the air mass flowrates across the orifice plate. Thus, the inlet air mass flowrates depends only on the number of turns on Valve 11.6. Average inlet air mass flowrates for cooling water at 2, 5, 8, and 11 kg h-1 were used to produce the following equation in Figure 3 which will be the calibration used in this experiment. Figure 3: Calibration of averaged inlet mass air flowrate across orifice plate Assumptions Temperature Factor Figure 4: Double Stage Pump (13) The suction pressure created falls within the range of approximately 106 to 531 torr while the temperature of sealant water used entered the pump at approximately 55 °F. These conditions fall within a region where the gradient of the graph is very gentle and the value of the temperature factor is around 1.0. Therefore, the temperature factor to be applied to the flowrate of sealant water is approximately the same even as inlet pressure changes. Also, even as the cooling water flowrate was changed, the sealant water temperature was observed to remain around 55 °F. The temperature factor to be applied would not be greatly affected by either of the two operating variables, namely the cooling water flowrate and the inlet air mass flowrate which affects the suction pressure. Since the temperature factor is approximately 1.0, it can be assumed that the mass flowrate of sealant water entering the pump and leaving the pump to be the same, making the vaporisation of air negligible. This a ssumption is investigated by performing a mass balance across the pump taking into account vaporisation of air during the compression process. Inlet air It is assumed that the inlet air into the Liquid ring pump contains no moisture, thus we refer to the inlet air as dry air. The heat exchanger is assumed to have 100% efficiency in heat transfer between the pump, sealant water, and cooling water streams. Assuming no heat loss to the surroundings, the compression work done by the pump is equal to the heat gained by the cooling water in the heat exchanger. For the purpose of calculating efficiency of the Liquid ring pump for this experiment, it is found to be more to calculate compression work from the cooling water heat gain. Steady State Vapour pressure Vapour pressure refers to the pressure in the gas phase when the liquid and gas phase of a system are in equilibrium. The vapour pressure of the sealant liquid into the Liquid ring pump plays an important role in determining the pump capacity. At higher temperatures of sealant liquid, the vapour pressure increases and more vaporisation occurs, causing a lower flowrate of air into the pump which results in low pump capacity. Although it might seem that maximum cooling of the sealant water might be a good idea, care must be taken that the sealant water temperature do not fall so low that cavitation might occur in the Liquid ring pump. [more on cavitation in limitations section] In this experiment, the temperature of the sealant liquid is varied by changing the cooling water flowrates. The relationship between vapour pressure and pump capacity is investigated. From Antoines equation, the vapour pressure of a liquid within a range of temperature can be determined (14) Where T is the temperature, K is the saturation vapour pressure, mmHg are constants for specific materials. For an air-water system, the standard Antoine coefficients are A=8.05573, B=1723.64, C=233.076  °C, valid between temperatures of 0.01  °C and 373.98  °C. (15) A relationship between the vapour pressure and temperature can be obtained from the Clausius-Clapeyron equation (16) Where T1 and T2 are temperatures at condition state 1 and state 2 respectively, K and are vapour pressures at T1 and T2 respectively, Pa is the heat of vaporisation, kJ/kg Isothermal System work done across T2 to T4 equals T7 to T6 T4,6,7? The compression process of a liquid ring pump can be approximated to an isothermal operation at inlet sealant water temperatures. (1) During compression, mechanical energy is converted to compression work and dissipated as thermal energy. The liquid ring formed in the pump provides high heat convection and mass transfer which dissipates the thermal energy, creating a near-isothermal operation. This phenomenon occurs in such a short time scale that the system reaches equilibrium rapidly, and the outlet gas temperature approximates the inlet sealant liquid temperature. Mallick (1) describes this as an achievement of highest degree of thermodynamic efficiency of compression. [Need temperatures to prove this] Compression work From the First Law of Thermodynamics, isothermal compression work of an ideal gas can be expressed by (16) Where W is work, J P is absolute pressure, Pa V is total volume of the system, m3 Assuming ideal gas behaviour applies (verify this!), Where m is mass, kg V1 is the inlet volume, m3 V2 is the outlet volume, m3 R is the gas constant, Pa m3 kg-1 K-1 T is the temperature, K For an isothermal system (17) PV = constant Where Wc is the compression work, J Equation ? is divided by time t, to express the compression work, Substituting = m/t = à Ã‚  Where is the mass flowrate, kg s-1 t is time, s And equation ? in equation ?, the compression work of a vacuum pump at any pressure P, for an isothermal system can be derived to be (4): Where is the pumping speed of the liquid ring pump is the theoretical power consumed for an isothermal process, kW Pump efficiency The efficiency of the liquid ring pump is a vital factor in deciding the suitability of the pump for its purpose. Through experimental investigation, we varied cooling water flow rate and air mass flow rate to determine the condition where the liquid ring pump is the most efficient. From theory, we have assumed an isothermal operating condition which leads us to calculating the efficiency, of the pump as: Where Wiso,c is defined as the compression work done under isothermal conditions Wactual,c is defined as the enthalpy gain and Wactual,c = m Cp ΆT. Units? m is the sealant water mass flowrate, units? Cp is the specific heat capacity of the sealant water (4.912 KJ/Kg.K) ΆT is the measured difference in discharge and suction temperatures in which our case will be (T6 -T7) (18) Where have they come from? Figure 5: Title (19) 3.0 Mass and energy balance 3.1 Mass balance During compression in the liquid ring pump, mechanical work is converted to thermal energy and dissipated, potentially vaporising the sealant water used for compression. Assuming the inlet air is dry air with no water content, the mass balance across the LRP is: Mass balance on the gas component Assuming This can be rearranged to give Where is the humidity ratio obtained from the psychometric chart for the air-water system at standard atmospheric pressure (20). By determining the relative humidity, RH, the value of HR at any temperature can be determined from the psychometric chart. Where is the vapour pressure which can be determined by Eq. ? (Antoine), Pa is the saturation vapour pressure, Pa Mass balance on the liquid component 3.2 Energy balance Total energy balance of a unit mass of fluid is given by (14) Where are internal energy at the inlet and outlet respectively, J is the gravitational acceleration, m s-2 z1 and z2 are the elevation at inlet and outlet respectively, m and are the velocities at inlet and outlet respectively, m s-1 q Heat absorbed from the surroundings units? Ws work done by the fluid on the surroundings units? Assumptions made for the energy balance across the pump: since the system is operating horizontally with no elevation between inlet and outlet Kinetic energy is assumed to be negligible since it is insignificant compared to enthalpy change. Negligible heat loss from the system, . This assumes an adiabatic process. Substituting the relation And Where h is the specific enthalpy, kJ kg-1 The energy balance equation reduces to Which is Where and are the inlet and outlet mass flowrates respectively, kg s-1 and are inlet and outlet specific enthalpy respectively, kJ kg-1 Methodology Apparatus Figure 6: Process Flow Diagram of Experimental Set-up Liquid Ring Pump Sealant Water Tank Scrubber Thermocouples Mercury Manometers Rotameter Orifice Plate DeltaV system Experimental design Firstly, we identified two operating variables that could be varied to investigate the performance of the pump. The two variables are the inlet air flowrate and the storage tank cooling water flowrate. The inlet air flowrate could be manipulated by a flow control valve over a range of 8 to 70 turns. By calculating the pressure drop across an orifice plate and plotting a calibration curve, we were able to get the mass flowrate associated with the number of turns on the valve. The storage tank cooling water could be manipulated over a range of 0.5 to 12.5 m3h-1. The adjacent flowmeter gives a measurement of the cooling water flowrate into the heat exchanger around the sealant water storage tank. A full set of measurements were taken to obtain pressure, flowrate and temperature data as we changed the operating variables. Pressure data was obtained for the pressure drop across the orifice plate, and the suction, interstage and outlet pressures for the pump through mercury manometers. Flowrate data was taken from a rotameter that measured the volumetric flowrate of the sealant water. Temperature data was extracted by the DeltaV logging software in the control room. Experimental Procedure The following procedure was conducted over two experimental runs. Through repeating the procedure, we were able to test the reproducibility of our results and reduce the effect of random errors on our results. Set and maintain cooling water flowrate at 2m3hr-1. Starting with the maximum air flowrate at 70 turns we waited for steady state to be achieved before taking the manometer readings for suction, interstage, outlet, orifice plate and rotameter readings for the sealant water flowrate. The air flowrate was then decreased to 60 turns followed by 50, 40, 30, 20 and 10 turns, all the while ensuring that steady state is reached before taking the readings. The full range of measurements from 70 to 10 turns for the inlet air flowrate was similarly taken at cooling water flowrates of 5, 8 and 11m3hr-1. Limitations In determining if the system is at steady state, the flowrate readings that can be monitored from the control room will provide good indication once the rate stabilises. However, the range of the flowmeter is limited beyond 119m3/hr (between 40 and 50 turns on V11.6). Therefore, the mercury manometer that reads the pressure drop across the orifice plate should be used to determine steady state after 40 turns on V11.6. A calibration curve will be plotted to relate the inlet air flowrate and the pressure drop across the orifice plate for mass flow calculations. Also, the flowmeter was faulty on our second run which meant that we would have to solely depend on our calibration curve to determine the inlet air mass flowrate at any number of turns. Analysis of results In the investigation of the performance of the two stage liquid ring pump, we ran the pump under different operating conditions by varying two variables; the air mass flowrates into the pump and cooling water flowrates. Pressures of the suction, interstage and outlet of the pump were measured and used to evaluate the pumps performance at different conditions, hence determining the efficiency of the pump. As the behaviour of inlet air mass flowrate, sealant water flowrate, suction pressure, compression work and pumping speed showed almost identical trends for different cooling water flowrates, an average of the four measurements were used. Sealant Liquid The sealant liquid used in the experiment is water and the compressed fluid is air. Before starting the run, the pump is filled with a specific level of water to ensure that there is sufficient sealant liquid to create vacuum. As the sealant fluid shares the same space in the pump as the fluid to be compressed, it would be expected that as the flowrate of the latter is increased, the flowrate of the sealant liquid decreases. Figure 7: Average Sealant Water Flowrate vs Inlet Air Mass Flowrate From figure 7, it can be seen that as the inlet air mass flowrate increases, the sealant water flowrate into the pump decreases. This is in line with the expected trend since the compressed air occupies a much greater volume in the pump at higher air mass flowrates. Suction Pressure Vacuum is created by the liquid ring pump due to the pressure difference between the source and the pump inlet. In the experiment, the source is air at atmospheric pressure and the inlet pressure is the suction pressure created by the pump. A low suction pressure would translate to a big pressure difference, creating vacuum. (21) Figure 8: The average inlet air mass flowrate for varying cooling water flowrates was plotted against suction pressure Figure 8: shows the trend we obtained where suction pressure increases as inlet air flowrate is increased. This shows that at lower air flowrates, more vacuum is created at a low suction pressure. As the air flowrate is increased, the ability to create vacuum decreases resulting in a higher vacuum pressure. Figure 9: The relationship between dry air capacity and suction pressure at a temperature of 20  °C obtained from literature. (22) As it is assumed that dry air is used and that its density remains constant throughout, the experimental results in Figure 8 can be compared to results obtained from literature in Figure 9. A similar trend is observed where there is the suction pressure is greater as the dry air capacity increases. Figure 10: Table categorising the degree of vacuum according to the absolute pressure of operation. (23) This experiment operates within a range of suction pressures which averages to approximately (1.41-6.00) x104 Pa abs. From figure 10, the range categorises the liquid ring pump as one that creates low vacuum. Low vacuum is sufficient in many industrial applications such as distillation in the petrochemical industry which keeps the liquid ring pump as a relevant piece of plant equipment. Compression Work (Sample calculations for a cooling water flowrate of 11 m3h-1 at 30 numbers of turns) shifted to appendix To calculate compression work under isothermal conditions, we can use Equation 3.7.11 Figure 12: shows that greater compression work is done by the pump with increasing suction pressure. From figure 12(above), it can be seen that greater compression work is done with increasing suction pressure. Based on the inlet air mass flowrate that we used, the suction pressure we created with the pump ranges from ~106 to 531 torr. The graph of the suction pressure against compression work shows a similar trend to literature values shown below in figure 11(below) for the same range. Figure 11: Effect of suction pressure compression work (4) Removed figure 13 Effect of Inlet Pressure on Pumping Speed Figure 15: Pumping Speed at different temperatures of sealant liquid (4) It can be seen from the graph Figure 15 that the change in pumping speed gradually becomes smaller. The inlet pressure (suction pressure) that we obtained from varying the inlet air mass flowrate falls within the range of around 106 to 531 torr. Therefore, we should obtain the same trend of pumping speed with increasing inlet pressure. Figure 16: Pumping speed changes with increasing suction pressure Replaced the graph with a newer one showing the right denotation for units on the y axis Figure 16 shows that the experimental results obtained agree with results obtained from literature. With increasing inlet pressure, the pumping speed increases while the gradient of the graph decreases. 5.5 Efficiency Figure 17: Plot of Isothermal Efficiency Vs Sealant Water Mass Flowrate Figure 17 shows that isothermal efficiency decreases with increasing sealent water flowrate. This result agrees with theory as we know from theory, the efficiency of the pump is affected by the vacuum capacity, and with an increase in sealent water flowrate, more vapour will be formed from the increased amount of sealent water forming the ring-liquid when the vacuum pressure approaches the vapour pressure of the sealent liquid. The increase in vapour volume released from the increase in sealent water will decrease the vacuum capacity and therefore reducing efficiency. Figure18: Plot of Efficiency Vs Cooling Water Flowrate Figure 18 shows that a higher cooling water flowrate will result in higher efficiency. The above trend is derived from the isothermal efficiency of the system at a fixed sealant water flowrate of 0.27 kg s-1. The cooling water flowrate is related to the enthalpy gain of the sealant water and consequently the isothermal efficiency. A higher flowrate would mean that the enthalpy gain is lower and that isothermal efficiency is higher which can be seen from equation 2.8.1. From the above results we can therefore conclude that the liquid ring pump is most efficient at the highest cooling water flowrate and a sealant water flowrate of 0.27 kg s-1 which translates to air flowrate at 60 turns flowing into the pump. Remove

Feminism in Sor Juana Essay -- Sor Juana Estela Portillo Trambley Essa

Feminism in Sor Juana In Estela Portillo Trambley’s play Sor Juana the main character Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz was considered to be one of the earliest feminists. Sor Juana’s eternal struggles to study and unshakable craving for knowledge and wisdom, from whatever source it may be, support this attribute. In my opinion however, there are also significant elements of the play that suggest that Sor Juana would not be considered a true feminist. Of these reasons, there are three major ones that I will analyze. The first reason is that Sor Juana gave up her struggle for the acquirement of knowledge from books and settled for reading from religiously accepted writing, essentially giving up what she had been originally fighting for and abandoning her previous ideals. Secondly, Sor Juana only fought for herself and what she wanted to pursue. She did not fight for other women or in other political, economic, or social spheres. Finally, the play fails to identify how Sor Juana set any kind of p recedent or example by accomplishing anything that women before her had never accomplished. In the remainder of this essay I will analyze how Trambley’s representation of Sor Juana is that of a woman concerned only with her own desires and also a woman that gave up her struggle for personal rights that she had once been so motivated to attain prior to setting any precedent for women as a group. One major reason that I do not consider Sor Juana to be the â€Å"Americas’ First Feminist† is that she gave up her struggle for what she originally wanted so badly. In the beginning, Sor Juana went through so much and worked so hard to learn and read and attain knowledge. She seemed so strong, looking past being laughed at and not taken seriously and continuing her quest to study. She began to give in and her original goals started to slip away. â€Å"†¦ and the Church will let me learn.† (151). This quote illustrates how Sor Juana joined the convent to be able to learn because she was not allowed to learn otherwise. Sor Juana settled for life in a convent. She was then forced to live a stricter lifestyle and was limited in her reading materials. It seems she complied with little struggle. Then she felt guilty for having used God in the first place to help her achieve her goal. This led to the abandonment of her original purpose altogether. Sor Juana s ays, â€Å"My whole life was s... ...hown to support the idea that Sor Juana accomplished anything that women before her did not accomplish. Sor Juana says herself, â€Å"I am only a woman incapable of changing worlds.† (184). This is also a main reason that Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, as she was represented in Trambley’s play, is not truly the â€Å"Americas’ First Feminist.† In conclusion, the reasons I have discussed above are sufficient evidence to show that Sor Juana, as she is represented in Trambley’s play is not truly the â€Å"Americas’ First Feminist.† Assertive and intelligent she was, but determined to make any change to the inequality experienced by women by being anything other than a precedent she was not. Also preventing her from being a true feminist is the fact that she was unsuccessful in accomplishing something that no woman had done before. Sor Juana abandoned her struggle to follow her dreams of pursuing something that no woman had ever accomplished prior. She was also unconcerned with the plight of other women, only her own desires to pursue her dreams. Ultimately, becoming just another obedient woman following the constraints of society is what prevents Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz from being a true feminist.

Not for Publication Chris Masters- Expository analysis :: essays research papers

Not For Publication â€Å"Journalists are given the privilege of shared access to the first draft of history, and some responsibility to make sense of it.†(NFP) The light that Chris masters sheds on the ethics and responsibility of investigative journalism in relation to the public and on whom the report on is explored in Not for publication. Masters’ expository discourse develops the common ‘essential objective is profit rather that saving the world.† Masters first hand experience and unearthing of the true facets that are todays investigative media, is more sinister than one would expect. Through direct expressions of Masters’ concern we see how the public is stimulated and deluded by masses of entertainment and propaganda, the cry for bad news is so inert in our society, that the concept of Masters exposition stories would not mediate to the mass media. The level of manipulation of the news is alarming when brought to our attention, Masters goes on further to explore why this news is manipulated, to our ill-surprise, it is manipulated for the very people who watch it, the public. The escalating sensationalism and violence that the media embellishes to is what Masters argues to be, what the public want, â€Å"the massage is hard to avoid: [the public] want blood, their own blood†. This is one of his major concerns, as a journalist, he wants to illuminate the factors that establish modern journalism, the condescending truths and untruths that deliver entertainment over morals. Chris Master incorporates the ‘duty of journalists [as] to reshape information and get that information to the public’, while this is important and periodically essential, it is his broad knowledge tells us that ‘the best journalism is the journalism to challenge the orthodox, respectfully challenge the public opinion and occasionally deliver bad news’(pg 5). While this is almost evident in Masters’ book, but the fact he did not deliver these stories that seem perfectly fit for ‘today’s journalism’ he attains a kind of benevolence, and consideration for his subjects. As seen in his anonymity, which shows the reader how it is not worth the social and media torment of the journalistic process. Quite powerfully he delivers the calming words that many of us already know, perhaps by our own nature or experience: ‘In order for there to be good journalism, journalists need to find a balance between what they want to present and what the public wants’.

Role of Roman Legions in Republic and the Empire

The role of Roman legions in creating the republic first and then the empire has been widely acknowledged. Legions emerged from the early Roman army which was composed of levied citizens and developed into a full fledged force with a modern infantry and well organized cavalry. (McCall, 2002). The first person to conscript soldiers into legions to the advantage of the state was Servius Tullius. By introducing the census, Tullius made it incumbent for all youth to be organized in various classes based on their income and also made it incumbent for them to join the army as a mark of being Roman citizens. This tradition of use of the legions for political consolidation has thus been the hallmark of the rise of the republic as well as the empire. In Rome service in the legion was considered mandatory. This naturally led to correlation of the legion with the republic as the concept emerged over the years by consolidation of the state. For the purposes of distinguishing between classes, the recruits were divided into five classes based on their income as each soldier had to acquire his own arm and equipment. Thus citizenship and legionnaire were both concomitant thereby laying strong linkages between the republic and the legions which were exploited over a period. The legions remained conscripted and were recalled as on required basis during the Republic thereby indicating that these were transient and to be fully exploited for sponsoring the aim of the head of the state. After the Marian reforms which were brought in at the end of the 2nd century BC, the legion was professionalized by Gaius Marius. This was done by him to enlarge the legions and enable fielding larger armies. Politically too this was important as in a Republic the state had the duty to provide jobs to people, for which legions were considered to be most appropriate organizations, once again highlighting an utilitarian trend. Assimilation of the Italian soldiers in Roman legions and grant of citizenship was also a Marian initiative thereby enhancing the numbers as well as the power of the state. The ingrained manipulative streak of the masters of the legion would be more than evident in these measures. This professionalizing also led to a realization that the legions could play an important political role and hence all governors were proscribed from leaving their province with the legions to prevent precipitation of a crisis in other states. Just such a crisis precipitated the civil wars when Caesar broke the rule crossing with his legion into Italy. The civil wars saw the end of the republic and beginning of the Empire led by Augustus in 27 BC. The legions once again were very effectively used by both Antony and Augustus the ultimate victor of the civil war which led to the establishment of the Roman empire. Once having won the war though Augustus reduced the number of legions as he was finding it difficult to sustain the force. Politically it was not expedient to have many legions which could challenge the authority of the emperor at any given time. Augustus and then his successors would not however totally abandon the concept, but only added new legions as required by the circumstances and disbanded these when no longer required by the needs of the empire, thereby once again denoting how they successfully exploited the legions for the purposes of the state. Reference 1.Mccall, Jeremiah B. (2002). The Cavalry of the Roman Republic: Cavalry Combat and Elite Reputations in the Middle and Late Republic. New York : Routledge.

Summary of Napoleon’s Buttons Chapter 12: Molecules of Witchcraft

Introduction Between the fourteenth and eighteenth centuries, many people died by cruel and horrible deaths of buring at the stake, hanging, or being tortured. The estimates of people killed ranged up to the millions which included men, women, children, and even aristocrats as they were accused of witchcraft. Although, poor and elderly women were the ones effected the most from multitudes of paranoia and delusions in those centuries. However, certain molecules played a role in this discrimination that ultimately led millions to their demise.Toil and Trouble Witchcraft, prior to 1350, was regarded as sorcery where one controls nature in their own interest by protecting crops or people and casting spells to influence or provide. It was accepted in Europe and it was only a crime if sorcery was used to harm. Indolent accusations were avoided because people victims of maleficium were able to seek help from a witch and only become liable for penalty if they were unable to prove their case. In all, witchcraft was just part of folklore.A new attitude emerged around the fourteenth century when Christianity was opposed to magic. It only allowed magic sanctioned by the church and not the ones conducted outside since they believed that witches were in league with the devil. The crime of practicing sorcery became so terrible in the eyes of people that by the mid-fifteenth century, there were no more trials for the witches, but accusations were enough evidence to kill. The deeds that people regarded with witches transgressed rationality, but they were still fervently believed.A large percentage of women were accused as witches since it was believed that whenever disaster stuck, people would exclaimed that women have been working together with demons at a witches' gathering. The killings definitely too its toll on both Catholic and Protestant countries as the height of the witch-hunt paranoia left no women in Swiss villages, some regions in Germany had its village population burned. In England and Holland, the accused had to undergo the water test that had them thrown into a pond and if they floated, they were a true which.If they were innocent, it was a comfort to their families, but they still drowned. As the witch-hunt terror gradually faded, the economy was threatened since so many people were accused and killed. When the Age of Enlightenment came, people opposed the madness and the witch-hunts ceased. So, by the eighteenth century, executions for practicing witchcraft came to a halt for the Church and state, but the public weren't ready to give up on the fear of witchcraft that built over the centuries. Although many of the women killed were herbalists who were skilled in using local plants to cure diseases and provide pain relief.They were often relied upon for spells or removal of hexes since some of their herbs had healing powers that would seem magical. Although, using the herbal medicine and prescribing them were dangerous because different pa rts of the plant contain ranging levels of effective compounds, like how plants from different locations can vary in their ability to cure or the different times of year they're harvested would change how much does they contain. Many plants were beneficial, but there were ones that can have poison depending on their molecules.So, the molecules in these plants may yet brand a herbalist as a witch. Healing Herbs, Harmful Herbs Many plants contain were used to relieve pain and prevent illnesses, like the salicylic acid in willow trees were used for aspirin or how the root of the celery were used to prevent muscle cramps. Also, Digitalis was an extract from the common foxglove and its molecules helped in reducing the heart rate and regularize heart rhythm. It strengthens the heartbeat too. The digoxin molecule helps with cardiac glycoside or the heart.For example, in 1795, a British physician named William Withering used the foxglove extracts for treating congestive heart failure. It wa s not until more then a century after that scientists were able to identify the molecule responsible for its curable abilities with cardiac glycoside. Three sugar unitsThe steroid ring system In the Digitalis extract, there are also many other molecules that's similar to digoxin, like the digtoxin molecule. It lacks the OH and similar cardiac glycoside molecules are in other plants that are often members of the lily or ranunculus families.The molecules have the same structural features though,so they're likely resposible for the caridac effect. All have five membered lactone ring that's attached to the end of the steroid system with an extra OH in between the C and D rings of the steroid system. lactone ring extra OH between C and D rings Molecules affecting the heart are not found in plants. Toxin compounds found in animals are similar to the structures of cardiac glycosides found in plants. The molecules don't have sugar or used as heart stimulants, but they are poison and have li ttle medical value.The venom is extracted from amphibians, like the frog or toad that are used as arrow poisons and the common anima attributed with witches since in folklore, it is said that many potions made by witches contained toad parts. Bufotoxin is a molecule that's an active component of venom from the common European toad. It's one of the most toxic molecules with structures showing similarities to the steroid system ring of the digitoxin molecule with same extract OH between the C and D rings. The difference is that it has a six membered lactone ring instead of a five membered. ix-membered lactone ring extra OH between C and D rings Bufotoxin is a cardiac poison and not a cardiac restorative, but in addition to toads and foxglove, another myth about witches was that they were able to fly. Many accused as wtiches confessed to flying and the possible chemical explanation is that it had to do with a group of compounds called alkaloids. Alkaloids, plant compounds, have more th an one nitrogen atoms that's usually part of a ring of carbon atoms. They have had a large effect on human history than any other chemicals and affects the central nervous system in humans.They're highly toxic, but they have been used as medicine for thousands if years. Chemical substances play a role in protecting plants since alkaloids are natural fungicides, insecticide, and pesticides. So, humans ingest about a gram and a half of natural pesticide every day from plants and plant products. This leads to the physiological effects on humans. Although they have been used medicinally for centuries. For example, Acrecaidine, alkaloid found in betel nuts, is used as a stimulant in Africa and the East.Ephedrine, from the ma huang plant, has been used in Chinese herbal medicine and now used as a decongestant and bronchodilator in the West. Members of the vitamin B family include; thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), and niacin (B3). They're classed as alkaloids. Reserpine is used to treat hig h blood pressure and be a tranquilizer from the Indian snakeroot plant. Alkaloids don't just have toxicity, but they're also poisonous too. The hemlock plant, responsible for the death of philosopher Socrates in 399 B. C. , is the alkaloid coniine.Coniine has a simple structure, but highly poisonous than the complicated structure of strychnine from seeds of Asiatic trees. ConiineStrychnine Mandrake and henbane contains very similar alkaloids. The two main types are hyoscyamine and hyoscine, which are found in mandrakes, belladonna, and henbane in various proportions. Atropine is a form of hyoscyamine and is valued for its use in dilute solutions, like to dilate the pupil of the eye for ophthalmic examinations. Although, too much can be unsafe and the first symptom of atropine poisoning is the drying of bodily fluids.So, it is used in areas where there's hypersecretion of mucus or saliva that interferes with surgery. Scopolamine, a hyoscine, is used as an anesthetic. It has euphoric effects like atropine and prevents motion sickness. Difference between the two Scopolamine Neither atropine and scopolamine alkaloids are soluble in water. The â€Å"witches† of Europe knew that swallowing the compounds will lead to death rather than the euphoric, intoxicating sensations they wanted. So, the extracts of mandrake, belladonna, and henbane were dissolved in oils and applied to the skin.Witches also used these salves in regards with flying, although they weren't actually â€Å"flying. † The alkaloids brought on hallucinations which led to the sensations of flying among other things as the comalike sleep happens in the last stage. This temporarily escape from reality from these molecules brought confessions from those women and they were burnt at the stake. The Ergot Alkaloids There is another group of alkaloids that devasted communities with its effects. People attributed the disasters with evil spells casted by witches.They're found in the ergot fungus th at affects cereal grains such as rye. After bacteria and viruses, ergotism is the next-largest microbial killer, like how ergotamine causes blood vessels to constrict or how ergonovine induces abortions in humans. Also, large numbers of villagers most likely attained ergotism since rainy periods would envoke fungus to grow on the rye and poor storage promotes the growth. Most people thought their village was bewitched and blamed innocent women, especially if they don't have symptoms of ergotism.Even though ergotism was known for a long time, the cause being hinted around 600 B. C. from reports as the Assyrians observed â€Å"a noxious pustule in the ear of grain† and ergot alkaloids from â€Å"noxious grasses† caused miscarriages in cattle in 400 B. C. , the first recorded occurrence wasn't until A. D. 857 in Europe. There were periodic outbreaks that occurred up to the twentienth century. For example, ergotism played a role in reducing the effectiveness of Julius Caes ar's army and restricted him from his goals to enlarge the Roman Empire.Initially, ergotism seemed the answered the the Salem witch-hunts. The symptoms of ergot poisoning cannot be stopped, so victims would use that to their advantage and accuse neighbors. So, the suffering of these people and their families can be traced back to ergot molecules. Ergot alkaloids are toxic, but have a history of therapeutic use. For example, they were used to hasten birthds or help with abortions and today they are used to treat migraine headaches, postpartum bleeding, and be stimulants for uterine contractions in childbirth.Ergot alkaloids have the same common chemical feature; they're derivatives lysergic acid. The OH group of lysergic acid is replaced by a larger side group. Replaced OH group Lysergic AcidErgotamine In all, neither the atropine or ergot alkaloids caused witchcraft, but there effects were evidence against many women. In the medieval world, women were killed becaused they had knowle dge on medicinal plants, but it has proven to be helpful in the present-day world as there are many various pharmaceuticals. So, the folklore of the past can be of assistance to treating many conditions and diseases.

Burkitt Lymphoma Essay

Burkitt Lymphoma was mapped out in geographic distribution across Africa by Dr. Denis Parsons Burkitt (Huang 2005). This disease is a high grade B-cell neoplasm, which has two major forms: the endemic (i. e. African nature) and the non-endemic (i. e. sporadic nature). Burkitt Lymphoma is mainly found as childhood tumor, yet it is, also, observed in adult patients (Huang 2005). This Lymphoma type is one of the fastest growing malignancies in humans, and it has a high growth fraction (Huang 2005). Burkitt Lymphoma is a monoclonal proliferation of B lymphocytes that is characterized by small non-cleaved cells is appeared to be uniform in appearance (Huang 2005). It produces a diffuse pattern of tissue involvement. While under the microscope, this lymphoma is characterized by the presence of a â€Å"starry sky† appearance due to scattered macrophages with phagocyte cell debris; this is observed in other highly proliferate lymphomas, as well (Huang 2005). The African form of this lymphoma most often involves the maxilla or mandible and the involvement of abdominal organs, for instance the kidneys, ovaries, and retroperitoneal structures, but is somewhat less common (Huang 2005). On the contrary, the sporadic form involves the abdominal organs: distal ileum, cecum, and mesentery. The involvement of pelvic organs or facial bones is rare (Huang 2005). The majority of Burkitt Lymphomas carry a translation of the c-myc oncogene from chromosome eight to the immunoglobulin (lg) heavy-chain region on chromosome fourteen (t 8;14)or a light-chain loci chromosome two (t 8;2)or chromosome twenty-two (t 8;22) (Huang 2005). Within the African form of Burkitt Lymphoma, The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has been implicated strongly and the relationship in the sporadic form is less clear (Huang 2005). Epstein-Barr virus is associated in approximately twenty percent of sporadic cases. The rare cases in adult are usually associated with immunodeficiency, predominantly AIDS, respectively (Huang 2005). Some have reasoned, the host is unable to generate adequate T-lymphocyte response or Epstein-Barr specific cytoxic T-cells (Huang 2005). This subsequently results in excessive B cell proliferation. The lymphocytes have receptors especially for the Epstein-Barr virus and are the specific targets (Huang 2005). In the African form, the hosts are believed to be unable to increase a suitable immune response to primary Epstein-Barr infection. This is possible due to coexistent malaria or other infections that are immunosuppressive, also (Huang 2005). Burkitt Lymphoma is an extremely rare cancer in the United States, with only 100 new cases each year. However, Burkitt Lymphoma is endemic in many regions of equatorial Africa and other tropical regions between latitudes 10 ° south and 10 ° north. The frequency of this cancer in these endemic regions is 100 per million children (Huang 2005). The male-to-female ratio is 2-3:1, and the most common a in children is seven years of age is the mean in African, eleven years of age is the current mean outside of Africa (Huang 2005). Prior to aggressive therapeutic treatment program, children with Burkitt Lymphoma died rapidly. However, with a combination of chemotherapy and CNS prophylaxis the survival rate has increase to at least sixty percent; and patients with a limited disease now have a ninety percent chance of survival (Huang 2005). Patients with bone marrow and CNS involvement have a poor prognosis. Adults with the disease, especially those in the advanced stage, do more poorly than affected children (Huang 2005). In the African form, patients most often present swelling of the mandible and other facial bone with the loosening of teeth, and swelling of the lymph nodes, which have rapid growth below the mandible (Huang 2005). Patients who have the sporadic form are commonly presented with abdominal tumors that cause swelling and pain in the affected area; few patients have symptoms of bowel obstruction that is caused by tumor growth (Huang 2005). Burkitt tumors growth is tremendously rapid in nature, and patients have evident metabolic derangement and renal function impairment and may include epidural mass, skin nodules, central nervous system symptoms, and bone marrow involvement (Huang 2005). Rare cases of Burkitt lymphoma can present acute leukemia with fever, anemia, bleeding, and adenopathy (Huang 2005). Foremost indicators of Burkitt Lymphoma include soft tissue mass associated with involvement of the mandible, enlarged cervical lymph nodes, abdominal masses, and ascites (Huang 2005). Moreover, the exact cause and mechanisms of this lymphoma are presently unknown. It is important that Burkitt Lymphoma is distinguished from other abdominal tumors in childhood, such as Wilms tumor, neuroblastoma, and peripheral neuroectodermal tumor (Huang 2005). Also, within the bone marrow, B and T precursors and myeloid leukemia must be distinguished (Huang 2005). Systemic chemotherapy is the treatment for this lymphoma is all its stages. The survival rate ultimately depends on the stage at initial diagnosis (Huang 2005). Patients with a localized infection respond well to chemotherapy, with an excellent rate of survival. Cyclophosphamide therapy has been curative for eighty percent of children in Africa with the early stage of Burkitt Lymphoma (Brock 1996). The effect of cyclophosphamide is due to its metabolite phosphoramide mustard (Brock 1996). The metabolite is only formed in cells which have low levels of aldehyde dehydrogenase. The Phosphoramide mustard forms DNA cross links between and within DNA strands — this leads to cell death (Brock 1996). However, combination chemotherapy has improved treatment results. Intensive, short-duration, alkylator-based regimens are necessary for all patients with the sporadic form (Huang 2005). In patients with AIDS, Burkitt Lymphoma is in advanced stage at time of diganosis and tends to involve extranodal sites (Huang 2005). Furthermore, because of underlying immunodeficiency and leukopenia, these patients tolerate systemic chemotherapy very poorly. A patient’s expiration usually follows shortly after diagnosis (Huang 2005). A nine week regiment of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone was effective for early stages of the disease and a longer regimen included a combination with radiation (Link et al. 1997). The cure rate more than exceeded ninety percent with minimal toxicity. Therefore, a lesser-intensive therapy is under evaluation as a potentially effective means to steer clear of unnecessary toxicity for patients with early stages (Link et al. 1997). This may achieve similar cure rates obtained with prolonged treatment (Link et al. 1997). Vanderbilt Medical Center has reported results for patients with poor-prognosis non-Hodgkin Lymphoma, which includes Burkitt Lymphoma, using a high dose and short-duration combined chemotherapy comprising cyclophosphamide, etoposide, doxorubicin, vincristine, bleomycin, methotrexate with leucovorin rescue, prednisone (Huang 2005). Burkitt Lymphoma patients have a high risk of tumor lysis syndrome before chemotherapy is started because of rapid tumor cell turnover (Huang 2005). This is a life-threatening situation and should be anticipated and addressed to the patient prior to beginning treatment (Huang 2005). Treatment should be preformed at a proper facility with renal dialysis is available, predominantly for patients with progression of disease (Huang 2005). Treatment of recurrent Burkitt lymphoma is difficult. Bone marrow transplantation is the only hope of long-term survival for these patients (Huang 2005). Burkitt Lymphoma is a high grade B-cell neoplasm, which is highly endemic in Central Africa and sporadic throughout other countries (Huang 2005). This disease is the fastest growing malignancy in children. A combination chemotherapy is the most effect mode of treatment and has high cure rates within early stages, and the moderate cure rates for progressed patients (Huang 2005). References Brock N. (1996). The history of the oxazaphosphorine cytostatics. Cancer. 78:542-7. Link MP, Shuster JJ, Donaldson SS, et al. (1997). Treatment of children and young adults with early-stage non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. New England Journal of Medicine. 30 October 1997; 337(18): 1259-66. Huang, H, MD, PhD et al.. (2005). Burkitt Lymphoma. eMedicine. Date visited 19 April 2006. http://www. emedicine. com/med/topic256. htm